DECISION MAKING CONDITIONS
The conditions for making decisions are made under certainty, uncertainty and risk are based on our feelings and our experiences.
1. Certainty
We experience certainty about a specific question when we have a feeling of complete belief or complete confidence in a single answer to the question.
Decisions such as deciding on a new carpet for the office or installing a new piece of equipment or promoting an employee to a supervisory position are made with a high level of certainty.
While there is always some degree of uncertainty about the eventual outcome of such decisions there is enough clarity about the problem, the situation and the alternatives to consider the conditions to be certain.
2. Uncertainty
A decision under uncertainty is when there are many unknowns and no possibility of knowing what could occur in the future to alter the outcome of a decision. We feel uncertainty about a situation when we can't predict with complete confidence what the outcomes of our actions will be. We experience uncertainty about a specific question when we can't give a single answer with complete confidence.
Launching a new product, a major change in marketing strategy or opening your first branch could be influenced by such factors as the reaction of competitors, new competitors, technological changes, and changes in customer demand, economic shifts, government legislation and a host of conditions beyond your control.
These are the type of decisions facing the senior executives of large corporations who must commit huge resources.
3. Risk:
A situation in which the manager is able to estimate the likelihood (probability) of outcomes that result from the choice of particular alternatives. A far more common situation than decision making under certainty is one of risk, under risk, managers have historical data from past personal experiences or secondary information that lets them assign probabilities to different alternatives.
Monday, January 3, 2011
Levels of Decision Making
LEVELS OF DECISION MAKING:
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened management.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business e.g. whether to take over Company A or Company B
Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to implement strategy e.g. what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra staff to recruit
Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics e.g. which firm to use to make deliveries.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened management.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business e.g. whether to take over Company A or Company B
Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to implement strategy e.g. what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra staff to recruit
Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics e.g. which firm to use to make deliveries.
Types of Decision
TYPES OF DECISIONS:
Managers would be overwhelmed with decision making if each situation had to be treated as novel, that is, new. Fortunately this is not so. Managerial decisions can be programmed or non - programmed.
Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are made in routine, repetitive, well-structured situations with predetermined decision rules. These may be based on habit, or established policies, rules and procedures and stem from prior experience or technical knowledge about what works or does not work in a given situation.
for example, the fighting and civil services and, in industry, production areas. These decisions can be taken by relatively junior staff, and some can be executed by computers or even by servo-mechanisms – the speed-control mechanism on a clockwork motor, for instance. Many programmed decisions are derived from established practices and procedures or habit. Computers are an ideal tool for dealing with several kinds of complex programmed decisions.
Most of the decisions made by first-line managers and many by middle managers.
For example, organizations often have standardized routines for handling customer complaints or employee discipline. Decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and routine and that a definite approach has been worked out for handling them. Because the problem is well-structured, the manager does not have to go to the trouble and expense of working through an involved decision making process.
Non-programmed decisions: Non-programmed decisions are unique decisions that require a 'custom made' solution. This is when a manager is confronted with an ill-structured or novel problem and there is no 'cut and dried solution'. The creation of a marketing strategy for a new service represents an example of a non-programmed decision. IBM Australia's introduction of a personal computer in the 1980s was unlike any other decision the company had previously made. Non programmed decisions are typically one shot decisions that are usually less structured than programmed decision. These decisions deal with new areas and new problems, and are the main pre-occupation of senior managers – or at least they should be!
Managers would be overwhelmed with decision making if each situation had to be treated as novel, that is, new. Fortunately this is not so. Managerial decisions can be programmed or non - programmed.
Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are made in routine, repetitive, well-structured situations with predetermined decision rules. These may be based on habit, or established policies, rules and procedures and stem from prior experience or technical knowledge about what works or does not work in a given situation.
for example, the fighting and civil services and, in industry, production areas. These decisions can be taken by relatively junior staff, and some can be executed by computers or even by servo-mechanisms – the speed-control mechanism on a clockwork motor, for instance. Many programmed decisions are derived from established practices and procedures or habit. Computers are an ideal tool for dealing with several kinds of complex programmed decisions.
Most of the decisions made by first-line managers and many by middle managers.
For example, organizations often have standardized routines for handling customer complaints or employee discipline. Decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and routine and that a definite approach has been worked out for handling them. Because the problem is well-structured, the manager does not have to go to the trouble and expense of working through an involved decision making process.
Non-programmed decisions: Non-programmed decisions are unique decisions that require a 'custom made' solution. This is when a manager is confronted with an ill-structured or novel problem and there is no 'cut and dried solution'. The creation of a marketing strategy for a new service represents an example of a non-programmed decision. IBM Australia's introduction of a personal computer in the 1980s was unlike any other decision the company had previously made. Non programmed decisions are typically one shot decisions that are usually less structured than programmed decision. These decisions deal with new areas and new problems, and are the main pre-occupation of senior managers – or at least they should be!
The Decision Making Process
THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS:
Managers make decisions affecting the organization daily and communicate those decisions to other organizational members. Some decisions affect a large number of organization members, cost a great deal of money to Carry out, or have a long term effect on the organization. Such significant decisions can have a major impact, not only on the management systems itself, but on the career of the manager who makes them.
Other decisions are fairly insignificant, affecting only a small member of organization members, costing little to carry out, and producing only a short term effect on the organization.
Figure 1: The Decision-Making Process
The model in Figure 1 above is a normative model, because it illustrates how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
1. Identifying a problem: The first step towards a decision making process is to define the problem. Obviously, there would be no need to make a decision without having a problem. So, the first thing one has to do is to state the underlying problem that has to be solved. You also have to clearly state the outcome or goal that you desire after you have made the decision. This is a good way to start, because stating your goals would help you in clarifying your thoughts. If the problem is stated incorrectly or unclearly then your decisions will be wrong.
2. Identify Alternatives: Sometimes your only alternatives are to do it or don't do it. Most of the time you will have several feasible alternatives. It is worth doing research to ensure you have as many good alternatives as possible.
3. Develop Alternatives: The situation of making a decision arises because there are many alternatives available for it. Hence, the next step after defining the main problem would be to state out the alternatives available for that particular situation. Here, you do not have to restrict yourself to think about the very obvious options, rather you can use your creative skills and come out with alternatives that may look a little irrelevant. This is important because sometimes solutions can come out from these out-of-the-box ideas. You would also have to do adequate research to come up with the necessary facts that would aid in solving the problem.
4. Evaluate the Alternatives: This can be said to be the one of the most important stages of the decision making process. This is the stage where you have to analyze each alternative you have come up with. You have to find out the advantages and disadvantages of each option. This can be done as per the research you have done on that particular alternative. At this stage, you can also filter out the options that you think are impossible or do not serve your purpose. Rating each option with a numerical digit would also help in the filtration process. This is where the analysis begins. You must have some logical approach to rank the alternatives. Two such logical approaches are discussed at Example of a Decision Matrix and at Sample SWOT Analysis.
5. Make A Decision - You have evaluated your alternatives. Two or more of your high ranked alternatives may be very close in the evaluations. You should eliminate all of the alternatives that were low ranked. Now it is time to go back and examine the inputs you made to evaluation criteria for the close high ranked alternatives. Do you still feel comfortable with the inputs you made? When you have made any changes it is time for some subjection. You have eliminated the alternatives that do not make logical sense. Now it is time to let your subconscious work. Review all the details of the remaining high ranked close alternatives, so they are completely clear in your mind. Completely leave the project alone for a few days. When you return to the project, the decision will likely be very clear in your head. This only works if you have done your homework!
6. Implement the Solution: The next obvious step after choosing an option would be implementing the solution. Just making the decision would not give the result one wants. Rather, you have to carry out on the decision you have made. This is a very crucial step because all the people involved in the implementation of a solution should know about the implications of making the decision. This is very essential for the decision to give successful results.
7. Monitor your Solution: Just making the decision and implementing it is not the end of the decision making process, it is very important to monitor your decision regularly. At this stage, you have to keep a close eye on the progress of the solution taken and also whether it has led to the results you expected.
These steps to decision making process may, at first, seem very complicated. However, these are essential decision making techniques that would aid you in taking proper decisions in your personal as well as professional life.
Managers make decisions affecting the organization daily and communicate those decisions to other organizational members. Some decisions affect a large number of organization members, cost a great deal of money to Carry out, or have a long term effect on the organization. Such significant decisions can have a major impact, not only on the management systems itself, but on the career of the manager who makes them.
Other decisions are fairly insignificant, affecting only a small member of organization members, costing little to carry out, and producing only a short term effect on the organization.
Figure 1: The Decision-Making Process
The model in Figure 1 above is a normative model, because it illustrates how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
1. Identifying a problem: The first step towards a decision making process is to define the problem. Obviously, there would be no need to make a decision without having a problem. So, the first thing one has to do is to state the underlying problem that has to be solved. You also have to clearly state the outcome or goal that you desire after you have made the decision. This is a good way to start, because stating your goals would help you in clarifying your thoughts. If the problem is stated incorrectly or unclearly then your decisions will be wrong.
2. Identify Alternatives: Sometimes your only alternatives are to do it or don't do it. Most of the time you will have several feasible alternatives. It is worth doing research to ensure you have as many good alternatives as possible.
3. Develop Alternatives: The situation of making a decision arises because there are many alternatives available for it. Hence, the next step after defining the main problem would be to state out the alternatives available for that particular situation. Here, you do not have to restrict yourself to think about the very obvious options, rather you can use your creative skills and come out with alternatives that may look a little irrelevant. This is important because sometimes solutions can come out from these out-of-the-box ideas. You would also have to do adequate research to come up with the necessary facts that would aid in solving the problem.
4. Evaluate the Alternatives: This can be said to be the one of the most important stages of the decision making process. This is the stage where you have to analyze each alternative you have come up with. You have to find out the advantages and disadvantages of each option. This can be done as per the research you have done on that particular alternative. At this stage, you can also filter out the options that you think are impossible or do not serve your purpose. Rating each option with a numerical digit would also help in the filtration process. This is where the analysis begins. You must have some logical approach to rank the alternatives. Two such logical approaches are discussed at Example of a Decision Matrix and at Sample SWOT Analysis.
5. Make A Decision - You have evaluated your alternatives. Two or more of your high ranked alternatives may be very close in the evaluations. You should eliminate all of the alternatives that were low ranked. Now it is time to go back and examine the inputs you made to evaluation criteria for the close high ranked alternatives. Do you still feel comfortable with the inputs you made? When you have made any changes it is time for some subjection. You have eliminated the alternatives that do not make logical sense. Now it is time to let your subconscious work. Review all the details of the remaining high ranked close alternatives, so they are completely clear in your mind. Completely leave the project alone for a few days. When you return to the project, the decision will likely be very clear in your head. This only works if you have done your homework!
6. Implement the Solution: The next obvious step after choosing an option would be implementing the solution. Just making the decision would not give the result one wants. Rather, you have to carry out on the decision you have made. This is a very crucial step because all the people involved in the implementation of a solution should know about the implications of making the decision. This is very essential for the decision to give successful results.
7. Monitor your Solution: Just making the decision and implementing it is not the end of the decision making process, it is very important to monitor your decision regularly. At this stage, you have to keep a close eye on the progress of the solution taken and also whether it has led to the results you expected.
These steps to decision making process may, at first, seem very complicated. However, these are essential decision making techniques that would aid you in taking proper decisions in your personal as well as professional life.
Decision Making
DECISION MAKING:
Decision Making is the process of choosing the best alternative for reaching objectives.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a supportive environment where they won’t be unfairly criticized for making wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risk-taking and creativity; managers will respond by ‘playing it safe’ to minimize the risk of criticism which diminishes the business’ effectiveness in responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the business
Decision Making is the process of choosing the best alternative for reaching objectives.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a supportive environment where they won’t be unfairly criticized for making wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risk-taking and creativity; managers will respond by ‘playing it safe’ to minimize the risk of criticism which diminishes the business’ effectiveness in responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the business
Management Skills
MANAGERIAL SKILLS:
Managerial skill is to be understood as the ability to perform managerial tasks effectively with readiness and dexterity. Skills require knowledge and ability to apply that knowledge competently and efficiently has to be acquired by practice. A skilled person is one who has done the job effectively number of times and in the process of doing so, improved his efficiency at the job.
Various authors identified certain tasks of management discipline. Some authors have identified a list of managerial skills many of them being the tasks of management..
Research by Robert L. Katz ,found that managers needed three essential skills. These are technical skills, human skills and conceptual skills.
Technical skills
For a manager managing any activity, the actual work involved in the activity is technical skill. It includes knowledge of and proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as engineering, computers, financial and managerial accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organization's work. .
Contributing to corporate mission/departmental objectives, customer focus, multitasking; working at multiple tasks at parallel, negotiating skills, project management, reviewing operations and implementing improvements, setting and maintaining performance standards internally and externally, setting priorities for attention and activity, time management.
Human skills
Ability to transform ideas into words and actions, credibility among colleagues, peers, and subordinates, listening and asking questions, presentation skills and spoken format, presentation skills; written and graphic formats
To communicate with other persons in the department or organizations and the ability to understand their desires and persuade them to ones point of view are human skills.
It involves the ability to work well with other people both individually and in a group. Because managers deal directly with people, this skill is crucial! Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their people. They know how to communicate, motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust. These skills are equally important at all levels of management.
Conceptual skills
Ability to use information to solve business problems, identification of opportunities for innovation, recognizing problem areas and implementing solutions, selecting critical information from masses of data, understanding the business uses of technology, understanding the organization's business model.
Conceptual skills are understanding of how customers of the department or organization react as a group to various activities. Similarly a manager has to understand how suppliers to his department react as a group. Here economic consequences, political consequences, and social consequences come into play and a manager must be able to visualize all these likely outcomes in coming out with his objectives, strategies and tactics.
Managers must have to think and conceptualize about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationship among various subunits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment. These skills are most important at top level management.
In words of KatzAbility, the administrator needs:
a) sufficient technical skill to accomplish the mechanics of the particular job for which he is responsible.
b) sufficient human skill in working with others to be an effective group member and to be able to build cooperative effort within the team he leads.
c) sufficient conceptual skill to recognize the interrelationships of the various factors involved in his situation, which will lead him to take that action which achieves the maximum good for the total organization.
In today's demanding and dynamic workplace, employees who are invaluable to an organization must be willing to constantly upgrade their skills and take on extra work outside their own specific job areas. There is no doubt that skills will continue to be an important way of describing what a manager does.
Managerial skill is to be understood as the ability to perform managerial tasks effectively with readiness and dexterity. Skills require knowledge and ability to apply that knowledge competently and efficiently has to be acquired by practice. A skilled person is one who has done the job effectively number of times and in the process of doing so, improved his efficiency at the job.
Various authors identified certain tasks of management discipline. Some authors have identified a list of managerial skills many of them being the tasks of management..
Research by Robert L. Katz ,found that managers needed three essential skills. These are technical skills, human skills and conceptual skills.
Technical skills
For a manager managing any activity, the actual work involved in the activity is technical skill. It includes knowledge of and proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as engineering, computers, financial and managerial accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organization's work. .
Contributing to corporate mission/departmental objectives, customer focus, multitasking; working at multiple tasks at parallel, negotiating skills, project management, reviewing operations and implementing improvements, setting and maintaining performance standards internally and externally, setting priorities for attention and activity, time management.
Human skills
Ability to transform ideas into words and actions, credibility among colleagues, peers, and subordinates, listening and asking questions, presentation skills and spoken format, presentation skills; written and graphic formats
To communicate with other persons in the department or organizations and the ability to understand their desires and persuade them to ones point of view are human skills.
It involves the ability to work well with other people both individually and in a group. Because managers deal directly with people, this skill is crucial! Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their people. They know how to communicate, motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust. These skills are equally important at all levels of management.
Conceptual skills
Ability to use information to solve business problems, identification of opportunities for innovation, recognizing problem areas and implementing solutions, selecting critical information from masses of data, understanding the business uses of technology, understanding the organization's business model.
Conceptual skills are understanding of how customers of the department or organization react as a group to various activities. Similarly a manager has to understand how suppliers to his department react as a group. Here economic consequences, political consequences, and social consequences come into play and a manager must be able to visualize all these likely outcomes in coming out with his objectives, strategies and tactics.
Managers must have to think and conceptualize about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationship among various subunits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment. These skills are most important at top level management.
In words of KatzAbility, the administrator needs:
a) sufficient technical skill to accomplish the mechanics of the particular job for which he is responsible.
b) sufficient human skill in working with others to be an effective group member and to be able to build cooperative effort within the team he leads.
c) sufficient conceptual skill to recognize the interrelationships of the various factors involved in his situation, which will lead him to take that action which achieves the maximum good for the total organization.
In today's demanding and dynamic workplace, employees who are invaluable to an organization must be willing to constantly upgrade their skills and take on extra work outside their own specific job areas. There is no doubt that skills will continue to be an important way of describing what a manager does.
Changes that Affect Managers
CHANGES THAT AFFECT MANAGERS
Change Management aims to ensure that standardized methods and procedures are used for efficient handling of all changes.Two main groups of changes affect managers’ jobs and are significant to an organization: external forces and internal forces. With external forces, the need for change comes from various sources outside the organization: marketplace, governmental laws and regulations, technology, labor markets, and economic changes.
Internal forces originate from the internal operations of the organization or from the impact of external changes. They include redefining an organization’s strategy, workforce, new equipment, and employee attitudes. Both types of changes are critical to the success of a manager and his/her organization.
One external change managers will face is the marketplace. An organization must be proactive, reactive, and adaptive in order to successfully compete in their niche market. Becoming too comfortable in the status quo without taking the competition or consumer needs and desires into account is a recipe for failure. Search engine companies like Yahoo and Google are examples of organizations that continue to create new technology and applications to respond to evolving demands of consumers.
Governmental laws and regulations are another external force of change. For example, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act required U.S. companies to change the way they disclose financial information and enact corporate governance. Not complying with new and existing federal and state laws can be costly, result in a negative perception, and severe legal ramifications that could ultimately destroy an organization. A recent example of the first two consequences is Wal-Mart. The company has paid between $750 million and $1.5 billion in legal fines and judgments over the past decade alone, including numerous violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (Business Ethics 7th Ed., Ferrell Fraedrich). Managers can help ensure their organization is following the rules by instituting a strict code of ethics.
Change Management aims to ensure that standardized methods and procedures are used for efficient handling of all changes.Two main groups of changes affect managers’ jobs and are significant to an organization: external forces and internal forces. With external forces, the need for change comes from various sources outside the organization: marketplace, governmental laws and regulations, technology, labor markets, and economic changes.
Internal forces originate from the internal operations of the organization or from the impact of external changes. They include redefining an organization’s strategy, workforce, new equipment, and employee attitudes. Both types of changes are critical to the success of a manager and his/her organization.
One external change managers will face is the marketplace. An organization must be proactive, reactive, and adaptive in order to successfully compete in their niche market. Becoming too comfortable in the status quo without taking the competition or consumer needs and desires into account is a recipe for failure. Search engine companies like Yahoo and Google are examples of organizations that continue to create new technology and applications to respond to evolving demands of consumers.
Governmental laws and regulations are another external force of change. For example, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act required U.S. companies to change the way they disclose financial information and enact corporate governance. Not complying with new and existing federal and state laws can be costly, result in a negative perception, and severe legal ramifications that could ultimately destroy an organization. A recent example of the first two consequences is Wal-Mart. The company has paid between $750 million and $1.5 billion in legal fines and judgments over the past decade alone, including numerous violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (Business Ethics 7th Ed., Ferrell Fraedrich). Managers can help ensure their organization is following the rules by instituting a strict code of ethics.
Change Mangement Process
CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS:
Requested: Anyone can request a change. The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change. When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.
Approved: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, Management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change. Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices. Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.
Planned: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing and documenting both implementation and back out plans. Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.
Tested: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment. The back out plan must also be tested.
Scheduled: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.
Communicated: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated. The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change. The communication also serves to make the Help Desk and users aware that a change is about to occur. Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.
Implemented: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented. Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan. If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.
Documented: All changes must be documented. The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation, testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was implemented, who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.
Post change review: The change review board should hold a post implementation review of changes. It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.
Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment. Good change management procedures improve the over all quality and success of changes as they are implemented. This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation and communication.
Requested: Anyone can request a change. The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change. When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.
Approved: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, Management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change. Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices. Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.
Planned: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing and documenting both implementation and back out plans. Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.
Tested: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment. The back out plan must also be tested.
Scheduled: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.
Communicated: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated. The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change. The communication also serves to make the Help Desk and users aware that a change is about to occur. Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.
Implemented: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented. Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan. If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.
Documented: All changes must be documented. The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation, testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was implemented, who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.
Post change review: The change review board should hold a post implementation review of changes. It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.
Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment. Good change management procedures improve the over all quality and success of changes as they are implemented. This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation and communication.
Change Management
CHANGE MANAGEMENT:
Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment. This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers and software. The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made. It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.
Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk. Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects. One of Managements many responsibilities is the management of risk. Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment. Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.
Not every change needs to be managed. Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment. Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management. However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity. The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.
Change management is usually overseen by a Change Review Board composed of representatives from key business areas, security, networking, systems administrators, Database administration, applications development, desktop support and the help desk. The tasks of the Change Review Board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application. The responsibility of the Change Review Board is to ensure the organizations documented change management procedures are followed.
Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment. This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers and software. The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made. It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.
Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk. Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects. One of Managements many responsibilities is the management of risk. Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment. Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.
Not every change needs to be managed. Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment. Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management. However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity. The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.
Change management is usually overseen by a Change Review Board composed of representatives from key business areas, security, networking, systems administrators, Database administration, applications development, desktop support and the help desk. The tasks of the Change Review Board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application. The responsibility of the Change Review Board is to ensure the organizations documented change management procedures are followed.
Steps of Planning Function of Management
Establishment of objectives
Planning requires a systematic approach.
Planning starts with the setting of goals and objectives to be achieved.
Objectives provide a rationale for undertaking various activities as well as indicate direction of efforts.
Moreover objectives focus the attention of managers on the end results to be achieved.
As a matter of fact, objectives provide nucleus to the planning process. Therefore, objectives should be stated in a clear, precise and unambiguous language. Otherwise the activities undertaken are bound to be ineffective.
As far as possible, objectives should be stated in quantitative terms. For example, Number of men working, wages given, units produced, etc. But such an objective cannot be stated in quantitative terms like performance of quality control manager, effectiveness of personnel manager.
Such goals should be specified in qualitative terms.
Hence objectives should be practical, acceptable, workable and achievable.
Establishment of Planning Premises
Planning premises are the assumptions about the lively shape of events in future.
They serve as a basis of planning.
Establishment of planning premises is concerned with determining where one tends to deviate from the actual plans and causes of such deviations.
It is to find out what obstacles are there in the way of business during the course of operations.
Establishment of planning premises is concerned to take such steps that avoids these obstacles to a great extent.
Planning premises may be internal or external. Internal includes capital investment policy, management labour relations, philosophy of management, etc. Whereas external includes socio- economic, political and economical changes.
Internal premises are controllable whereas external are non- controllable.
Choice of alternative course of action
When forecast are available and premises are established, a number of alternative course of actions have to be considered.
For this purpose, each and every alternative will be evaluated by weighing its pros and cons in the light of resources available and requirements of the organization.
The merits, demerits as well as the consequences of each alternative must be examined before the choice is being made.
After objective and scientific evaluation, the best alternative is chosen.
The planners should take help of various quantitative techniques to judge the stability of an alternative.
Formulation of derivative plans
Derivative plans are the sub plans or secondary plans which help in the achievement of main plan.
Secondary plans will flow from the basic plan. These are meant to support and expediate the achievement of basic plans.
These detail plans include policies, procedures, rules, programmes, budgets, schedules, etc. For example, if profit maximization is the main aim of the enterprise, derivative plans will include sales maximization, production maximization, and cost minimization.
Derivative plans indicate time schedule and sequence of accomplishing various tasks.
Securing Co-operation
After the plans have been determined, it is necessary rather advisable to take subordinates or those who have to implement these plans into confidence.
The purposes behind taking them into confidence are :-
Subordinates may feel motivated since they are involved in decision making process.
The organization may be able to get valuable suggestions and improvement in formulation as well as implementation of plans.
Also the employees will be more interested in the execution of these plans.
Follow up/Appraisal of plans
After choosing a particular course of action, it is put into action.
After the selected plan is implemented, it is important to appraise its effectiveness.
This is done on the basis of feedback or information received from departments or persons concerned.
This enables the management to correct deviations or modify the plan.
This step establishes a link between planning and controlling function.
The follow up must go side by side the implementation of plans so that in the light of observations made, future plans can be made more realistic.
Planning requires a systematic approach.
Planning starts with the setting of goals and objectives to be achieved.
Objectives provide a rationale for undertaking various activities as well as indicate direction of efforts.
Moreover objectives focus the attention of managers on the end results to be achieved.
As a matter of fact, objectives provide nucleus to the planning process. Therefore, objectives should be stated in a clear, precise and unambiguous language. Otherwise the activities undertaken are bound to be ineffective.
As far as possible, objectives should be stated in quantitative terms. For example, Number of men working, wages given, units produced, etc. But such an objective cannot be stated in quantitative terms like performance of quality control manager, effectiveness of personnel manager.
Such goals should be specified in qualitative terms.
Hence objectives should be practical, acceptable, workable and achievable.
Establishment of Planning Premises
Planning premises are the assumptions about the lively shape of events in future.
They serve as a basis of planning.
Establishment of planning premises is concerned with determining where one tends to deviate from the actual plans and causes of such deviations.
It is to find out what obstacles are there in the way of business during the course of operations.
Establishment of planning premises is concerned to take such steps that avoids these obstacles to a great extent.
Planning premises may be internal or external. Internal includes capital investment policy, management labour relations, philosophy of management, etc. Whereas external includes socio- economic, political and economical changes.
Internal premises are controllable whereas external are non- controllable.
Choice of alternative course of action
When forecast are available and premises are established, a number of alternative course of actions have to be considered.
For this purpose, each and every alternative will be evaluated by weighing its pros and cons in the light of resources available and requirements of the organization.
The merits, demerits as well as the consequences of each alternative must be examined before the choice is being made.
After objective and scientific evaluation, the best alternative is chosen.
The planners should take help of various quantitative techniques to judge the stability of an alternative.
Formulation of derivative plans
Derivative plans are the sub plans or secondary plans which help in the achievement of main plan.
Secondary plans will flow from the basic plan. These are meant to support and expediate the achievement of basic plans.
These detail plans include policies, procedures, rules, programmes, budgets, schedules, etc. For example, if profit maximization is the main aim of the enterprise, derivative plans will include sales maximization, production maximization, and cost minimization.
Derivative plans indicate time schedule and sequence of accomplishing various tasks.
Securing Co-operation
After the plans have been determined, it is necessary rather advisable to take subordinates or those who have to implement these plans into confidence.
The purposes behind taking them into confidence are :-
Subordinates may feel motivated since they are involved in decision making process.
The organization may be able to get valuable suggestions and improvement in formulation as well as implementation of plans.
Also the employees will be more interested in the execution of these plans.
Follow up/Appraisal of plans
After choosing a particular course of action, it is put into action.
After the selected plan is implemented, it is important to appraise its effectiveness.
This is done on the basis of feedback or information received from departments or persons concerned.
This enables the management to correct deviations or modify the plan.
This step establishes a link between planning and controlling function.
The follow up must go side by side the implementation of plans so that in the light of observations made, future plans can be made more realistic.
Planning Funstion Of Management
Planning Function of Management
Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action. It is rightly said “Well plan is half done”. Therefore planning takes into consideration available & prospective human and physical resources of the organization so as to get effective co-ordination, contribution & perfect adjustment. It is the basic management function which includes formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources.
According to Urwick, “Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses”. Planning is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals.
According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things to occur which would not otherwise occur”.
Steps in Planning Function
Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action. It is rightly said “Well plan is half done”. Therefore planning takes into consideration available & prospective human and physical resources of the organization so as to get effective co-ordination, contribution & perfect adjustment. It is the basic management function which includes formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources.
According to Urwick, “Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses”. Planning is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals.
According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things to occur which would not otherwise occur”.
Steps in Planning Function
Concept ofLeadership
Concepts of Leadership
I used to think that running an organization was equivalent to conducting a symphony orchestra. But I don't think that's quite it; it's more like jazz. There is more improvisation. — Warren Bennis
Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience (Jago, 1982). This guide will help you through that process.
To inspire your workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things you must be, know, and, do. These do not come naturally, but are acquired through continual work and study. Good leaders are continually working and studying to improve their leadership skills; they are NOT resting on their laurels.
Definition of Leadership
The meaning of a message is the change which it produces in the image. — Kenneth Boulding in The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society
Before we get started, lets define leadership. Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. This definition is similar to Northouse's (2007, p3) definition — Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
Leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership knowledge and skills. This is called Process Leadership (Jago, 1982). However, we know that we have traits that can influence our actions. This is called Trait Leadership (Jago, 1982), in that it was once common to believe that leaders were born rather than made. These two leadership types are shown in the chart below (Northouse, 2007, p5):
While leadership is learned, the skills and knowledge processed by the leader can be influenced by his or hers attributes or traits, such as beliefs, values, ethics, and character. Knowledge and skills contribute directly to the process of leadership, while the other attributes give the leader certain characteristics that make him or her unique.
I used to think that running an organization was equivalent to conducting a symphony orchestra. But I don't think that's quite it; it's more like jazz. There is more improvisation. — Warren Bennis
Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience (Jago, 1982). This guide will help you through that process.
To inspire your workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things you must be, know, and, do. These do not come naturally, but are acquired through continual work and study. Good leaders are continually working and studying to improve their leadership skills; they are NOT resting on their laurels.
Definition of Leadership
The meaning of a message is the change which it produces in the image. — Kenneth Boulding in The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society
Before we get started, lets define leadership. Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. This definition is similar to Northouse's (2007, p3) definition — Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
Leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership knowledge and skills. This is called Process Leadership (Jago, 1982). However, we know that we have traits that can influence our actions. This is called Trait Leadership (Jago, 1982), in that it was once common to believe that leaders were born rather than made. These two leadership types are shown in the chart below (Northouse, 2007, p5):
While leadership is learned, the skills and knowledge processed by the leader can be influenced by his or hers attributes or traits, such as beliefs, values, ethics, and character. Knowledge and skills contribute directly to the process of leadership, while the other attributes give the leader certain characteristics that make him or her unique.
Strategy Formation
Strategy formation
Strategic formation is a combination of three main processes which are as follows:
Performing a situation analysis, self-evaluation and competitor analysis: both internal and external; both micro-environmental and macro-environmental.
Concurrent with this assessment, objectives are set. These objectives should be parallel to a time-line; some are in the short-term and others on the long-term. This involves crafting vision statements (long term view of a possible future), mission statements (the role that the organization gives itself in society), overall corporate objectives (both financial and strategic), strategic business unit objectives (both financial and strategic), and tactical objectives.
These objectives should, in the light of the situation analysis, suggest a strategic plan. The plan provides the details of how to achieve these objectives.
Strategic formation is a combination of three main processes which are as follows:
Performing a situation analysis, self-evaluation and competitor analysis: both internal and external; both micro-environmental and macro-environmental.
Concurrent with this assessment, objectives are set. These objectives should be parallel to a time-line; some are in the short-term and others on the long-term. This involves crafting vision statements (long term view of a possible future), mission statements (the role that the organization gives itself in society), overall corporate objectives (both financial and strategic), strategic business unit objectives (both financial and strategic), and tactical objectives.
These objectives should, in the light of the situation analysis, suggest a strategic plan. The plan provides the details of how to achieve these objectives.
Strategic Management
Strategic Management
Strategic management is a field that deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives taken by general managers on behalf of owners, involving utilization of resources, to enhance the performance of firms in their external environments. It entails specifying the organization's mission, vision and objectives, developing policies and plans, often in terms of projects and programs, which are designed to achieve these objectives, and then allocating resources to implement the policies and plans, projects and programs. A balanced scorecard is often used to evaluate the overall performance of the business and its progress towards objectives. Recent studies and leading management theorists have advocated that strategy needs to start with stakeholders expectations and use a modified balanced scorecard which includes all stakeholders.
Strategic management is a level of managerial activity under setting goals and over Tactics. Strategic management provides overall direction to the enterprise and is closely related to the field of Organization Studies. In the field of business administration it is useful to talk about "strategic alignment" between the organization and its environment or "strategic consistency". According to Arieu (2007), "there is strategic consistency when the actions of an organization are consistent with the expectations of management, and these in turn are with the market and the context." Strategic management includes not only the management team but can also include the Board of Directors and other stakeholders of the organization. It depends on the organizational structure.
“Strategic management is an ongoing process that evaluates and controls the business and the industries in which the company is involved; assesses its competitors and sets goals and strategies to meet all existing and potential competitors; and then reassesses each strategy annually or quarterly [i.e. regularly] to determine how it has been implemented and whether it has succeeded or needs replacement by a new strategy to meet changed circumstances, new technology, new competitors, a new economic environment., or a new social, financial, or political environment.” (Lamb, 1984:ix)
Strategic management is a field that deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives taken by general managers on behalf of owners, involving utilization of resources, to enhance the performance of firms in their external environments. It entails specifying the organization's mission, vision and objectives, developing policies and plans, often in terms of projects and programs, which are designed to achieve these objectives, and then allocating resources to implement the policies and plans, projects and programs. A balanced scorecard is often used to evaluate the overall performance of the business and its progress towards objectives. Recent studies and leading management theorists have advocated that strategy needs to start with stakeholders expectations and use a modified balanced scorecard which includes all stakeholders.
Strategic management is a level of managerial activity under setting goals and over Tactics. Strategic management provides overall direction to the enterprise and is closely related to the field of Organization Studies. In the field of business administration it is useful to talk about "strategic alignment" between the organization and its environment or "strategic consistency". According to Arieu (2007), "there is strategic consistency when the actions of an organization are consistent with the expectations of management, and these in turn are with the market and the context." Strategic management includes not only the management team but can also include the Board of Directors and other stakeholders of the organization. It depends on the organizational structure.
“Strategic management is an ongoing process that evaluates and controls the business and the industries in which the company is involved; assesses its competitors and sets goals and strategies to meet all existing and potential competitors; and then reassesses each strategy annually or quarterly [i.e. regularly] to determine how it has been implemented and whether it has succeeded or needs replacement by a new strategy to meet changed circumstances, new technology, new competitors, a new economic environment., or a new social, financial, or political environment.” (Lamb, 1984:ix)
Basic Functions/Role
Basic functions/Roles
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/directing, and controlling/monitoring.i.e
Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for action.
Organizing: (Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans.
Staffing: Job Analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs.
Leading/Directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
Controlling/Monitoring: Checking progress against plans.
Motivation : Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation doesn't take place in an organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually set by top level management).
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/directing, and controlling/monitoring.i.e
Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for action.
Organizing: (Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans.
Staffing: Job Analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs.
Leading/Directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
Controlling/Monitoring: Checking progress against plans.
Motivation : Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation doesn't take place in an organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually set by top level management).
Theoretical Scope
Theoretical scope
At the beginning, one thinks of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Frenchman Henri Fayol(1841 -1925)[2] considers management to consist of six functions:forecasting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, controlling. He was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management.
Another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as philosophy.[3]
Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More realistically, however, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. in order to maximize its effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments which teach management as "business schools." Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the more inclusive term "management."
English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of the term was often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those being managed.
At the beginning, one thinks of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Frenchman Henri Fayol(1841 -1925)[2] considers management to consist of six functions:forecasting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, controlling. He was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management.
Another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as philosophy.[3]
Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More realistically, however, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. in order to maximize its effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments which teach management as "business schools." Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the more inclusive term "management."
English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of the term was often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those being managed.
Definition of Management
Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often included as a factor of production along with machines, materials, and money. According to the management guru Peter Drucker (1909–2005), the basic task of a management is twofold: marketing and innovation.
Directors and managers have the power and responsibility to make decisions to manage an enterprise. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policy which is implemented by the chief executive officer.
Directors and managers have the power and responsibility to make decisions to manage an enterprise. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policy which is implemented by the chief executive officer.
Management
Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Because organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attempting to manage others.
Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.
Because organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attempting to manage others.
Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.
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